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22 Mar 2024

Religious perspectives

Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus
Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of human history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians.[442][443] He is considered by many people to be the most influential figure to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.[444][445]
Apart from his own disciples and followers,[446] the Jews of Jesus' day generally rejected him as the messiah,[447] as does Judaism today.[448] Christian theologians, ecumenical councils, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian denominations have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Manichaeans, Gnostics, Muslims, Druzes,[449] the Baháʼís, and others, have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.[450][451][452]

Christianity

Main articles: Jesus in Christianity, Christ (title), and Christology
The Trinity is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit.Jesus is depicted with the Alpha and Omega letters in the Catacombs of Rome from the 4th century.
Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.[78] Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated in their catechetical or confessional texts.[453][454][455] Christian views of Jesus are derived from the texts of the New Testament, including the canonical gospels and letters such as the Pauline epistles and the Johannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.[456] Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[457]
The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus is the foundation of the Christian faith.[458][459] Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled with God and are thereby offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[192] Recalling the words of John the Baptist in the gospel of John, these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the Lamb of God, who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God.[460][461] Jesus is thus seen as the new and last Adam, whose obedience contrasts with Adam's disobedience.[462] Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.[78]
At present, most Christians believe that Jesus is both human and the Son of God.[463] While there has been theological debate over his nature,[s] Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and God the Son, both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.[465][466] With the Reformation, Christians such as Michael Servetus and the Socinians started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus' two natures.[24] Nontrinitarian Christian groups include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[467] Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses.[464]
Christians revere not only Jesus himself, but also his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[468][469] These devotions and feasts exist in both Eastern and Western Christianity.[469]

Judaism's view

Main article: Judaism's view of Jesus
See also: Jesus in the Talmud
Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus (or any future Jewish messiah) being God,[400] or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.[470] It holds that Jesus is not the messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the messiah.[471] Jews argue that Jesus did not fulfill prophecies to build the Third Temple,[472] gather Jews back to Israel,[473] bring world peace,[474] and unite humanity under the God of Israel.[475][476] Furthermore, according to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi,[477] who delivered his prophecies in the 5th century BC.[478]
Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing, and includes a range of stories in the Talmud, written and compiled from the 3rd to the 5th century AD.[479] In one such story, Yeshu HaNozri ("Jesus the Nazarene"), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practising magic.[480] According to some, the form Yeshu is an acronym which in Hebrew reads: "may his name and memory be blotted out".[481] The majority of contemporary scholars consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.[482] The Mishneh Torah, a late 12th-century work of Jewish law written by Moses Maimonides, states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".[483]
Medieval Hebrew literature contains the anecdotal "Episode of Jesus" (known also as Toledot Yeshu), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of Pandera (see: Episode of Jesus). The account portrays Jesus as an impostor.[484]

Manichaeism

Main article: Jesus in Manichaeism
Manichaeism was the first organized religion outside of Christianity to venerate Jesus.[485][486][487] He is considered one of the four prophets, along with Zoroaster, Gautama Buddha, and Mani.[488][489]

Islam

Main article: Jesus in Islam
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A major figure in Islam,[490][491][492] Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name ʿĪsā) is considered to be a messenger of God and the messiah (al-Masīḥ) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (Banī Isrāʾīl) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam as Injīl).[492][493] Muslims regard the gospels' accounts in the New Testament as partially authentic, and believe that Jesus' original message was altered (taḥrīf) and that Muhammad came later to revive it.[494] Belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is a requirement for being a Muslim.[495] The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad[496][497]—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.[498] While the Quran affirms the Virgin birth of Jesus, he is considered to be neither an incarnation nor a son of God.[499][500][501] Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism (tawḥīd) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry.[502]
The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary (Maryam) by the Holy Spirit that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God.[503][504] The Quran (21:91 and 66:12) states that God breathed his spirit into Mary while she was chaste.[503][504] Jesus is called a "spirit from God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,[503] but that belief does not imply his pre-existence.[505]
To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, by permission of God rather than by his own power.[501] Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as a precursor to Muhammad.[498] In the Quran (4:157–159) it is said that Jesus was not killed but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers,[506] and that he was raised into the heavens while still alive by God.[507] According to most classic Sunni and Twelver Shi'ite interpretations of these verses, the likeness of Jesus was cast upon a substitute (most often one of the apostles), who was crucified in Jesus' stead.[508] However, some medieval Muslims (among others, the ghulāt writing under the name of al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi, the Brethren of Purity, various Isma'ili philosophers, and the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali) affirmed the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion. These thinkers held the docetic view that, although Jesus' human form (his body) had died on the cross, his true divine nature (his spirit) had survived and ascended into heaven, so that his death was only an appearance.[509] Nevertheless, to Muslims it is the ascension rather than the crucifixion that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.[510] There is no mention of his resurrection on the third day, and his death plays no special role in Islamic theories of salvation.[511] However, Jesus is a central figure in Islamic eschatology: Muslims believe that he will return to Earth at the end of time and defeat the Antichrist (ad-Dajjal) by killing him.[492][512][513][514]
According to the Quran, the coming of Muhammad (also called "Ahmad") was predicted by Jesus:

And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel! I am truly Allah's messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad." Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This is pure magic."
— Surah As-Saf 61:6

Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.[515]

Ahmadiyya Islam

Main article: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has several distinct teachings about Jesus.[516] Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in Kashmir, India, and is buried at Roza Bal.[517]

Druze Faith

Main article: Jesus in Druze faith
In the Druze Faith,[449] Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets (natiq), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along with Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Muhammad and Muhammad ibn Isma'il, each of them sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.[449][518][519][520][521]

Baháʼí Faith

In the Baháʼí Faith, Jesus is considered one of the Manifestations of God,[522] defined as divine messengers or prophets sent by God to guide humanity, along with other religious figures such as Abraham, Moses, Krishna, Zarathushtra, Buddha, Muhammad and Baháʼu'lláh. Baháʼís believe that these religious founders or leaders have contributed to the progressive revelation by bringing spiritual and moral values to humanity in their own time and place.[523][524][525][526][527] As a Manifestation of God, Jesus is believed to reflect God's qualities and attributes, but is not considered the only saviour of humanity nor the incarnation of God.[528][529][530] Baháʼís believe in the virgin birth,[531][532] but see the resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.[533][532]

Other

See also: Criticism of Jesus
Jesus depicted as the liberator of Black slaves, on the masthead of the abolitionist paper The LiberatorEnthroned Jesus image on a Manichaean temple banner from c. 10th-century Qocho
In Christian Gnosticism (now a largely extinct religious movement),[534] Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge (gnosis) necessary for salvation. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of "the Christ" at his baptism. This spirit left Jesus' body during the crucifixion but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead. Some Gnostics, however, were docetics, believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to possess one.[535]
Some Hindus consider Jesus to be an avatar or a sadhu.[536] Paramahansa Yogananda, an Indian guru, taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of Elisha and a student of John the Baptist, the reincarnation of Elijah.[537] Some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.[538] The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.[539] Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated,[540] refer to Jesus as the Master Jesus, a spiritual reformer, and they believe that Christ, after various incarnations, occupied the body of Jesus.[541] The Urantia Book teaches Jesus is one of more than 700,000 heavenly sons of God.[542] Antony Theodore in the book Jesus Christ in Love writes that there is an underlying oneness of Jesus' teachings with the messages contained in Quran, Vedas, Upanishads, Talmud and Avesta.[543] Atheists reject Jesus' divinity, but have different views about him – from challenging his mental health [544][545] to emphasizing his "moral superiority" (Richard Dawkins).[546]

Artistic depictions

Main article: Depiction of Jesus
Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesus from Dura Europos in the 3rd century[547]
Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the Dura-Europos church are firmly dated to before 256.[548] Thereafter, despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[410][411][428] As in other Early Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and surviving images are found especially in the Catacombs of Rome.[549]
The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly controversial in the early Church.[550][t][551] From the 5th century onward, flat painted icons became popular in the Eastern Church.[552] The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century, art was permitted again.[410] The Protestant Reformation brought renewed resistance to imagery, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.[553][554] The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicans and Catholics [555][556][557] and is a key element of the Eastern Orthodox tradition.[558][559]
In Eastern Christian art, the Transfiguration was a major theme, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.[560] Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.[552]
In Western Europe, the Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; Fra Angelico and others followed Giotto in the systematic development of uncluttered images.[410] Before the Protestant Reformation, the crucifix was common in Western Christianity. It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it. The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches since then.[561]

Associated relics

Main article: Relics associated with Jesus
The Shroud of Turin, Italy, is the best-known claimed relic of Jesus and one of the most studied artefacts in human history[562]
The total destruction that ensued with the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from 1st-century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the 1st century through the 2nd century.[563][564][u] Margaret M. Mitchell writes that although Eusebius reports (Ecclesiastical History III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for Pella just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lockdown, we must accept that no first-hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us.[566] Joe Nickell writes, "as investigation after investigation has shown, not a single, reliably authenticated relic of Jesus exists".[567][v]
However, throughout the history of Christianity, a number of relics attributed to Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifixion.[570] Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty holy nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.[571]
Some relics, such as purported remnants of the crown of thorns placed on the head of Jesus, receive only a modest number of pilgrims, while the Shroud of Turin (which is associated with an approved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus), has received millions,[572] including popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI.[573][574]

Notes

^ James Dunn writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[2] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.[3] John Dominic Crossan and Richard G. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.[4] Paul R. Eddy and Gregory A. Boyd say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus is now "firmly established".[5]
^ Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her son miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims believe that she conceived her son miraculously by the command of God. Joseph was from these perspectives and according to the canonical gospels the acting adoptive father of Jesus.
^ Greek: Ἰησοῦς Iisoús, likely from Hebrew/Aramaic: יֵשׁוּעַ Yēšūaʿ
^ Coptic: Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ; Geʽez: መሲህ ኢየሱስ; Greek: Ἰησοῦς Χριστός; Hebrew: ישוע המשיח; Latin: Iesus Christus; Slavonic: Исус Христос; Syriac: ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ
^ Jump up to:
a b c In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman wrote, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees."[7] Richard A. Burridge states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more."[8] Robert M. Price does not believe that Jesus existed but agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars.[9] James D. G. Dunn calls the theories of Jesus' non-existence "a thoroughly dead thesis".[10] Michael Grant (a classicist) wrote in 1977, "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."[11] Robert E. Van Voorst states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.[12] Writing on The Daily Beast, Candida Moss and Joel Baden state that "there is nigh universal consensus among biblical scholars – the authentic ones, at least – that Jesus was, in fact, a real guy."[13]
^ Ehrman writes: "The notion that the Gospel accounts are not completely accurate but still important for the religious truths they try to convey is widely shared in the scholarly world, even though it's not so widely known or believed outside of it."[15]
Sanders writes: "The earliest Christians did not write a narrative of Jesus' life, but rather made use of, and thus preserved, individual units—short passages about his words and deeds. These units were later moved and arranged by authors and editors. ... Some material has been revised and some created by early Christians."[16]
^ A small minority of Christian denominations reject trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.
^ Part of the Eastern Christian churches celebrate Christmas on 25 December of the Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to 7 January in the Gregorian calendar. In many countries, Christmas is celebrated on 24 December.
^ Some medieval Muslims believed that Jesus was crucified, as do the members of the modern Ahmadiyya movement; see § Islamic perspectives.
^ This article uses quotes from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible.
^ Powell writes: "[Paul] does cite words or instructions of Jesus in a few places,[46] but for the most part he displays little interest in the details of Jesus' earthly life and ministry."[47]
^ Compare Matthew 1:6–16 with Luke 3:23–31. See also Genealogy of Jesus § Comparison of the two genealogies.
^ For an overview of such theories, see Genealogy of Jesus § Explanations for divergence.
^ Amy-Jill Levine writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate"[307]
^ Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."[326]
^ For example, John P. Meier states that Jesus' birth year is c. 7/6 BC,[342] while Finegan favours c. 3/2 BC.[343]
^ In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean (Ioudaios as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in Matthew 2, who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (basileus ton ioudaion); by both the Samaritan woman at the well and by Jesus himself in John 4; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".[422]
^ Ehrman writes: "In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by Earl Doherty in Jesus: Neither God Nor Man. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition."[432]
^ Following the Apostolic Age, there was fierce and often politicized debate in the early church on many interrelated issues. Christology was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the first seven ecumenical councils. Some early beliefs viewed Jesus as ontologically subordinate to the Father (Subordinationism), and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person (Sabellianism), both were condemned as heresies by the Catholic Church.[24][464] The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesus both fully human and fully God.[24]
^ Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF
^ Flavius Josephus writing (about 5 years later, c. AD 75) in The Jewish War (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited".[565] And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of Aelia Capitolina, no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.[564]
^ Polarized conclusions regarding the Shroud of Turin remain.[568] According to former Nature editor Philip Ball, "it's fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in 1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever. Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain deeply puzzling".[569]