Isaac Newton 2

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26 Jan 2024

Theology

Religious views

Main articles: Religious views of Isaac Newton and Isaac Newton's occult studies
Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity,[126] with one historian labelling him a heretic.[127]
By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only been available for public examination since 1972.[128] Over half of what Newton wrote concerned theology and alchemy, and most has never been printed.[128] His writings demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early Church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him."[129] He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the great apostasy was trinitarianism."[130]
Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair.[131]
In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin.[132] In 1999, historian Stephen D. Snobelen wrote, "Isaac Newton was a heretic. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs."[127] Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.[127]
Newton (1795, detail) by William Blake. Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer".[133]
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun".[134]
Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.[135] He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.[136]
He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".[137] He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.[138] For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."[139]
Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work Celestial Mechanics had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention.[140] The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave Napoleon, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the Mécanique céleste: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis").[141]
Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity. His first biographer, David Brewster, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.[142] In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by John Maynard Keynes (among others) were deciphered[67] and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.[127]

Religious thought

Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.[143] The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,[144] and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion".
The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.[145]

Alchemy

Newton was not the first of the age of reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians, the last great mind which looked out on the visible and intellectual world with the same eyes as those who began to build our intellectual inheritance rather less than 10,000 years ago. Isaac Newton, a posthumous child born with no father on Christmas Day, 1642, was the last wonderchild to whom the Magi could do sincere and appropriate homage.

–John Maynard Keynes, "Newton, the Man"[146]
Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.[108] Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.[147] Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church.[108]
In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.[148] The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.[149] John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.[108][148][150]
All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"[151] and summarised in a book.[152][153]

Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."[151]

In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont's book on plague, De Peste,[154] were being auctioned online by Bonhams. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison".[155]

Legacy

Fame

Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by John Michael Rysbrack
The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[156] English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:

Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night.
God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.

But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument. The epitaph in the monument is as follows:[157]

H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI,

which can be translated as follows:[157]

Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.

In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.[158] In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.[159][160] New Scientist called Newton "the supreme genius and most enigmatic character in the history of science".[15] Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.[161]
The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.
Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".[162]
In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730[163] in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring.[164] Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth in the world, which would value approximately £25,000 (US$35,700) in late 2001.[164] Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.

Apple incident

Main article: Isaac Newton's apple tree

Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree at (from top to bottom): Trinity College, Cambridge, the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, and the Instituto Balseiro library garden in Argentina

Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.[165][166] The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire.[167] Voltaire then wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."[168][169]
Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment,[170] acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:[171][172][173]

we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."

John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:[174]

In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.

A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple tree
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.[175] The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".
Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree[176] can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent[177] can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.[178]

Commemorations

Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent.[179] The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.[180] The Latin inscription on the base translates as:

Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25 December 1642, and died on 20 March 1726/7.
—Translation from G. L. Smyth, The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul's Cathedral, and of Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703–704.[180]

From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.[181]
A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A large bronze statue, Newton, after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school, prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.
The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".[162]

The Enlightenment

Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.[182]
It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the Principia was a turning point in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.[183] Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.

Works

Published in his lifetime

De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published 1711)[184]
Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)[185]
De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)[186]
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)[187]
Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa (1701)[188]
Opticks (1704)[189]
Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)[190]
Arithmetica Universalis (1707)[190]

Published posthumously

De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)[190]
Optical Lectures (1728)[190]
The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)[190]
Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)[190]
Method of Fluxions (1671, published 1736)[191]
An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)[190]

References

Notes

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a b c d e During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian ("Old Style") calendar in Protestant and Orthodox regions, including Britain; and the Gregorian ("New Style") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727.[6][self-published source?]
^ This claim was made by William Stukeley in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to Richard Mead. Charles Hutton, who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general."[113]

Citations

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a b "Fellows of the Royal Society". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2015.
^ Feingold, Mordechai. Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677) Archived 29 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in Feingold, Mordechai (1993). "Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation". Isis. 84 (2): 310–338. Bibcode:1993Isis...84..310F. doi:10.1086/356464. JSTOR 236236. S2CID 144019197.
^ "Dictionary of Scientific Biography". Notes, No. 4. Archived from the original on 25 February 2005.
^ Gjertsen 1986, p. [page needed]
^ Kevin C. Knox, Richard Noakes (eds.), From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 61.
^ Thony, Christie (2015). "Calendrical confusion or just when did Newton die?". The Renaissance Mathematicus. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
^ Jump up to:
a b Alex, Berezow (4 February 2022). "Who was the smartest person in the world?". Big Think. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ Whiteside, D. T. (1991). "The Prehistory of the 'Principia' from 1664 to 1686". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 45 (1): 11–61. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1991.0002. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 531520. S2CID 145338571.
^ Gandt, F. D. (2014). Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia. Princeton University Press. pp. ix–xii. ISBN 978-1-4008-6412-6.
^ Jump up to:
a b Newman, James Roy (1956). The World of Mathematics: A Small Library of the Literature of Mathematics from Aʻh-mosé the Scribe to Albert Einstein. Simon and Schuster. p. 58.
^ Jump up to:
a b Sastry, S.Subramanya, The Newton-Leibniz controversy over the invention of the calculus (PDF), University of Wisconsin–Madison, p. 3, doi:10.1214/ss/1028905930, retrieved 12 October 2023
^ Simmons, John (1997). The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present. Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1749-0.
^ Tyson, Peter (15 November 2005). "Newton's Legacy". NOVA. PBS. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ "Newton beats Einstein in polls of scientists and the public". Royal Society. 23 November 2005. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ Jump up to:
a b "Isaac Newton". New Scientist. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ More, Louis Trenchard (1934). Isaac Newton, a Biography. Dover Publications. p. 327.
^ Hatch, Robert A. (1988). "Sir Isaac Newton". Retrieved 13 June 2023.
^ Storr, Anthony (December 1985). "Isaac Newton". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition). 291 (6511): 1779–84. doi:10.1136/bmj.291.6511.1779. JSTOR 29521701. PMC 1419183. PMID 3936583.
^ Keynes, Milo (20 September 2008). "Balancing Newton's Mind: His Singular Behaviour and His Madness of 1692–93". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 62 (3): 289–300. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2007.0025. JSTOR 20462679. PMID 19244857.
^ Westfall 1980, p. 55.
^ "Newton the Mathematician" Z. Bechler, ed., Contemporary Newtonian Research(Dordrecht 1982) pp. 110–111
^ Westfall 1994, pp. 16–19.
^ White 1997, p. 22.
^ Westfall 1980, pp. 60–62.
^ Westfall 1980, pp. 71, 103.
^ Hoskins, Michael, ed. (1997). Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-521-41158-5.
^ Newton, Isaac. "Waste Book". Cambridge University Digital Library. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
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a b Struik, Dirk J. (1948). A Concise History of Mathematics. Dover Publications. pp. 151, 154.
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a b McDonald, Kerry (27 March 2020). "How Isaac Newton Turned Isolation From the Great Plague Into a "Year of Wonders"". fee.org. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
^ "Newton, Isaac (NWTN661I)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
^ Westfall 1980, p. 178.
^ Westfall 1980, p. 179.
^ Westfall 1980, pp. 330–331.
^ White 1997, p. 151.
^ Ball 1908, p. 319.
^ Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1967). "Part 7: The October 1666 Tract on Fluxions". The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 400. Archived 12 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Gjertsen 1986, p. 149.
^ "How and Why did Newton Develop Such Complicated Mathematics?". Futurism. 17 July 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
^ Newton, Principia, 1729 English translation, p. 41 Archived 3 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Newton, Principia, 1729 English translation, p. 54 Archived 3 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Newton, Sir Isaac (1850). Newton's Principia: The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Geo. P. Putnam. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
^ Clifford Truesdell, Essays in the History of Mechanics (1968), p. 99.
^ In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's Analyse des Infiniment Petits (Paris, 1696).
^ Starting with De motu corporum in gyrum, see also (Latin) Theorem 1 Archived 12 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1970). "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–138.
^ Stewart 2009, p. 107.
^ Westfall 1980, pp. 538–539.
^ Stern, Keith (2009). Queers in history : the comprehensive encyclopedia of historical gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgenders. Dallas, Tex.: BenBella. ISBN 978-1-933771-87-8. OCLC 317453194.
^ Nowlan, Robert (2017). Masters of Mathematics: The Problems They Solved, Why These Are Important, and What You Should Know about Them. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. p. 136. ISBN 978-94-6300-891-4.
^ Ball 1908, p. 356.
^ Błaszczyk, P.; et al. (March 2013). "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking". Foundations of Science. 18 (1): 43–74. arXiv:1202.4153. doi:10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8. S2CID 119134151.
^ King, Henry C. (1955). The History of the Telescope. Courier Corporation. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
^ Whittaker, E.T., A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Dublin University Press, 1910.
^ Darrigol, Olivier (2012). A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-19-964437-7.
^ Newton, Isaac. "Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat". Cambridge University Digital Library. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
^ Ball 1908, p. 324.
^ William R. Newman, "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry", in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283–307. A free access online version of this article can be found at the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project Archived 28 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
^ Ball 1908, p. 325.
^ "The Early Period (1608–1672)". James R. Graham's Home Page. Retrieved 3 February 2009.[permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to:
a b White 1997, p. 170
^ Hall, Alfred Rupert (1996). Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-521-56669-8. OCLC 606137087. This is the one dated 23 February 1669, in which Newton described his first reflecting telescope, constructed (it seems) near the close of the previous year.
^ White 1997, p. 168.
^ Newton, Isaac. "Of Colours". The Newton Project. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
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a b See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 2, 1676–1687' ed. H.W. Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at p. 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.
^ Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007
^ Jump up to:
a b Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 530–31. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.
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